Bunion (hallux valgus)
of muscle bone and joints, conditions

Read more about self-managing a foot problem

A bunion (hallux valgus) is a deformity caused by the base joint of the big toe developing sideways. This pushes the bones of the big toe towards the smaller toes.

If you have a bunion, try to stay positive. There’s a lot you can do to help yourself.


A bunion (hallux valgus) is a deformity caused by the base joint of the big toe developing sideways. This pushes the bones of the big toe towards the smaller toes.

If you have a bunion, try to stay positive. There’s a lot you can do to help yourself.


If you have a bunion, try to stay positive. There’s a lot you can do to help yourself.

Symptoms

Bunions can cause:

pain and stiffness of the big toe joint swelling of the big toe joint – the foot may become so wide it can be difficult to find wide enough shoes difficulty walking

Causes

The exact cause of bunions is unknown. Contributing factors can be:

a joint problem like osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis poorly fitting footwear a family history

Carcinoid syndrome and carcinoid tumours
of cancer, cancer types in adults

The tumour usually grows in the bowels or appendix, but it can also be found in the stomach, pancreas, lung, breast, kidney, ovaries or testicles. It tends to grow very slowly.

Carcinoid syndrome is the collection of symptoms some people get when a carcinoid tumour – usually one that has spread to the liver – releases hormones such as serotonin into the bloodstream.


Carcinoid syndrome is the collection of symptoms some people get when a carcinoid tumour – usually one that has spread to the liver – releases hormones such as serotonin into the bloodstream.

Symptoms

In the early stages of having a carcinoid tumour, you may not have any symptoms. You may also not have symptoms if the tumour is just in your digestive system, as any hormones it produces will be broken down by your liver.

If symptoms do develop, they tend to be fairly general and can be easily mistaken for signs of other illnesses.

Symptoms may result from both the tumour itself and from any hormones it releases into the bloodstream.

Symptoms caused by the tumour

Symptoms will depend on where in the body the tumour develops:

a bowel carcinoid tumour may cause tummy pain, a blocked bowel (diarrhoea, constipation, feeling or being sick) and bleeding from the bottom (rectal bleeding) a lung carcinoid tumour may cause a cough, which may make you cough up blood, and cause wheezing, breathlessness, chest pain and tiredness a stomach carcinoid tumour may cause pain, weight loss, tiredness and weakness

Some tumours may not cause any symptoms and are discovered by chance. For example, an appendix carcinoid tumour may only be found when the appendix is being removed for another reason.

Symptoms caused by the hormones (carcinoid syndrome)

Typical symptoms of carcinoid syndrome include:

diarrhoea, tummy pain and loss of appetite flushing of the skin, particularly the face fast heart rate breathlessness and wheezing

These symptoms may come on unexpectedly, as the hormones can be produced by the tumour at any time.

Some people may also develop carcinoid heart disease, where the heart valves thicken and stop working properly. There is also a risk of developing a rare but serious reaction called a carcinoid crisis, which involves severe flushing, breathlessness and a drop in blood pressure.

Causes

It’s not known exactly why carcinoid tumours develop, but it’s thought that most occur by chance.

Your chances of developing a carcinoid tumour may be increased if you have:

a rare family syndrome called multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) parents or siblings with a carcinoid tumour parents with squamous cell skin cancer, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, or cancer of the brain, breast, liver, womb, bladder or kidney conditions called neurofibromatosis or tuberous sclerosis

Diagnoses

A carcinoid tumour may be found incidentally – for example, as a surgeon is removing an appendix. In this case, the tumour will often be caught early and removed along with the appendix, causing no further problems.

Otherwise, people usually speak to their GP after they have developed symptoms. A carcinoid tumour may be diagnosed after carrying out a series of scans and tests, which may include measuring the amount of serotonin in your urine and having an endoscopy.

Treatments

If the tumour is caught early, it may be possible to completely remove it and cure the cancer altogether. Otherwise, surgeons will remove as much of the tumour as possible (debulking).

You can read more about the surgery for carcinoid tumours on the Cancer Research UK website.

If the tumour cannot be removed, but it’s not growing or causing symptoms, you may not need treatment straight away – it might just be carefully monitored. 

If it’s causing symptoms, you may be offered one of the following treatments:

injections of medicines called somatostatin analogues, such as octreotide and lanreotide, which can slow down the growth of the tumour radiotherapy to kill some of the cancer cells a procedure to block the blood supply to the tumour (for tumours in the liver), known as hepatic artery embolisation a procedure that uses a heated probe to kill cancer cells (for tumours in the liver), called radiofrequency ablation chemotherapy to shrink the tumour and control your symptoms

Symptoms of carcinoid syndrome can be treated with injections of octreotide and lanreotide. You may also be given medication to widen your airways (to relieve wheezing and breathlessness) and anti-diarrhoea medication.

Catarrh
of lungs and airways

Catarrh is a build-up of mucus in an airway or cavity of the body.

It usually affects the back of the nose, the throat or the sinuses (air-filled cavities in the bones of the face).

It’s often temporary, but some people experience it for months or years. This is known as chronic catarrh.

Catarrh can be a nuisance and may be difficult to get rid of, but it’s not harmful and there are treatments available.

Symptoms

Catarrh can lead to a:

constant need to clear your throat feeling that your throat is blocked blocked or stuffy nose that you can’t clear runny nose feeling of mucus running down the back of your throat persistent cough headache or facial pain reduced sense of smell and taste crackling sensation in your ear and some temporary hearing loss

These problems can be frustrating to live with and may affect your sleep, making you feel tired.

Causes

Catarrh is usually caused by the immune system reacting to an infection or irritation, which causes the lining of your nose and throat to become swollen and produce mucus.

This can be triggered by:

a cold or other infections hay fever or other types of allergic rhinitis non-allergic rhinitis nasal polyps

It’s unclear what causes chronic catarrh, but it’s not thought to be the result of an allergy or infection.

It may be related to an abnormality in the way mucus travels within the nose or an increased sensitivity to mucus in the back of the nose and throat.

Treatments

Catarrh will often pass in a few days or weeks as the condition that causes it improves.

There are things you can try at home to relieve your symptoms, such as:

avoiding things that trigger your symptoms, such as allergens or smoky places taking sips of cold water when you feel the need to clear your throat – constantly clearing your throat may make things worse using a saline nasal rinse several times a day – these can be bought from a pharmacy or made at home with half a teaspoon of salt in a pint of boiled water that’s been left to cool avoiding warm, dry atmospheres, such as places with air conditioning and car heating systems – placing plants or bowls of water in a room may help to keep the air humid staying well hydrated talking to a pharmacist about suitable over-the-counter medications – including decongestants, antihistamines or steroid nasal sprays

There are also several remedies, such as herbal medicines, available from health shops and pharmacies that claim to treat catarrh. Some people find these helpful, but there’s generally little scientific evidence to suggest they work.


Speak to your GP if your catarrh persists and is becoming difficult to live with.

They may want to rule out conditions that could be causing it, such as nasal polyps or allergies. This may mean you need to be referred to a specialist for tests.

If you’re diagnosed with a specific underlying condition, treating it may help relieve your catarrh. For example, nasal polyps may be treated with a steroid nasal spray, or in some cases surgery. 

If a cause for you catarrh cannot be found, the self-help techniques above may be recommended. Unfortunately, however, chronic catarrh can be hard to treat and may last for a long time.

Cellulitis
of skin hair and nails

Cellulitis is an infection of the deeper layers of skin and the underlying tissue. It can be serious if not treated promptly.

The infection develops suddenly and can spread through the body quickly. Severe infections can spread deep into the body, and can be life threatening.

Most cases are successfully treated with antibiotics at home, although sometimes it needs to be treated in hospital.

Symptoms

Symptoms of cellulitis develop suddenly and can get worse quickly. It affects the skin and can also cause additional symptoms.


Cellulitis causes the affected skin to become:

red hot swollen painful tender

There may also be a break in the skin, although this isn’t always obvious, and pus or blood-filled blisters.

Any part of the body can be affected.

Commonly affected areas include the lower legs, feet, arms or hands, and sometimes the face, particularly around the eyes.

See your GP or visit your nearest minor injuries unit as soon as possible if an area of your skin suddenly turns red, painful and hot.

The symptoms of cellulitis include redness, swelling and tenderness.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/


Cellulitis can also cause additional symptoms that may develop before or alongside the changes to your skin.

These can include:

feeling generally unwell feeling sick shivering chills

Occasionally the infection can spread to other parts of the body, such as the deeper layers of tissue, blood, muscle and bone. This can be very serious and potentially life threatening.

Signs the infection has spread include:

a high temperature (fever) of 38C (100.4F) or above a fast heartbeat or fast breathing being sick diarrhoea feeling dizzy or faint confusion or disorientation cold, clammy, pale skin unresponsiveness or loss of consciousness

Call 999 or go to your nearest accident and emergency (A&E) department immediately if you have other symptoms in addition to changes to your skin.

Causes

Cellulitis is usually caused by a bacterial infection. It occurs when bacteria get into the tissues beneath the skin.

Treatments

Cellulitis can often be treated at home with a course of antibiotics, although severe cases may need to be treated in hospital.


Antibiotics

If you’re treated at home, you’ll usually be prescribed antibiotic tablets to take two to four times a day for a week.

A longer course may be needed if your symptoms don’t improve after a week or you have an underlying condition that makes cellulitis more difficult to treat, such as lymphoedema.

Commonly prescribed antibiotics include flucloxacillin and clarithromycin. Possible side effects can include an upset stomach or diarrhoea.

Your symptoms may get worse in the first 48 hours after treatment starts, but should start to improve soon afterwards.

Make sure you complete the whole course of medicine you’re given, even if you’re feeling better.

Looking after yourself

While you’re recovering at home, the following steps can help ease your symptoms and aid your recovery:

take paracetamol or ibuprofen for the pain raise the affected body part to reduce swelling – for example, if your leg is affected, rest it on pillows or a chair when you’re sitting or lying down try to regularly move the joint near the affected body part, such as your wrist or ankle, to stop it getting stiff drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration if you usually wear compression stockings – for example, for lymphoedema – avoid these until you’ve recovered

When to get medical advice

Contact your GP as soon as possible if:

your symptoms get worse after 48 hours your symptoms haven’t improved after a week you develop additional symptoms, such as a high temperature (fever) or vomiting


If you need to be admitted to hospital for treatment, you’ll be given antibiotics directly into a vein through an injection or a drip (intravenous antibiotics).

Once you’ve recovered from the initial symptoms, you can usually be treated with antibiotic injections or tablets at home or as an outpatient, rather than staying in hospital.

Cerebral palsy
of brain nerves and spinal cord

Cerebral palsy usually causes abnormal muscle tone and movement. The main types of abnormal muscle tone are:

Spastic cerebral palsy This is the most common type of abnormal muscle tone. Someone with spastic cerebral palsy is likely to experience a tightening of the muscles throughout the body. This tightening can be persistent or intermittent. The amount of stiffness experienced will vary from person to person.

Dyskinetic cerebral palsy Individuals with this type of muscle tone may have dystonia or more rarely athetosis. This describes a type of abnormal muscle control where the muscles can shift from tight to floppy without warning, resulting in involuntary movements.

Ataxic cerebral palsy This is the least common type of cerebral palsy. It can be identified by shaky movement and poor balance. Someone with ataxic cerebral palsy may struggle with fine motor movements and coordination, like writing or using cutlery. They may have a tremor that increases with activity, and struggle with balance. This can make standing or sitting in an upright position difficult.

Mixed cerebral palsy Someone with mixed cerebral palsy may have signs of more than one type of abnormal muscle tone at the same time.


Spastic cerebral palsy This is the most common type of abnormal muscle tone. Someone with spastic cerebral palsy is likely to experience a tightening of the muscles throughout the body. This tightening can be persistent or intermittent. The amount of stiffness experienced will vary from person to person.

Dyskinetic cerebral palsy Individuals with this type of muscle tone may have dystonia or more rarely athetosis. This describes a type of abnormal muscle control where the muscles can shift from tight to floppy without warning, resulting in involuntary movements.

Ataxic cerebral palsy This is the least common type of cerebral palsy. It can be identified by shaky movement and poor balance. Someone with ataxic cerebral palsy may struggle with fine motor movements and coordination, like writing or using cutlery. They may have a tremor that increases with activity, and struggle with balance. This can make standing or sitting in an upright position difficult.

Mixed cerebral palsy Someone with mixed cerebral palsy may have signs of more than one type of abnormal muscle tone at the same time.


struggle with movement and balance, and may be unable to walk struggle to speak, and possibly need to use electronic aids have difficulties with eating, drinking and swallowing have problems with their vision experience pain symptoms experience fatigue (tiredness) have problems with their sleep have epilepsy have a learning disability display behavioural problems have bladder control problems have problems with their digestive system (constipation) struggle to control their saliva struggle to process information from their senses

A person with cerebral palsy may have secondary symptoms. These are caused by the impact of the condition on their body, rather than directly by cerebral palsy. These can include:

tightness in joints and muscles dislocations a change in their physical abilities changes in the amount of pain they experience increased fatigue

Symptoms

The symptoms of cerebral palsy can vary from person to person and are dependent on the type of brain injury or abnormality. Someone with cerebral palsy may:

struggle with movement and balance, and may be unable to walk struggle to speak, and possibly need to use electronic aids have difficulties with eating, drinking and swallowing have problems with their vision experience pain symptoms experience fatigue (tiredness) have problems with their sleep have epilepsy have a learning disability display behavioural problems have bladder control problems have problems with their digestive system (constipation) struggle to control their saliva struggle to process information from their senses

A person with cerebral palsy may have secondary symptoms. These are caused by the impact of the condition on their body, rather than directly by cerebral palsy. These can include:

tightness in joints and muscles dislocations a change in their physical abilities changes in the amount of pain they experience increased fatigue

Causes

Cerebral palsy is caused by damage to the brain during pregnancy, birth or early development.

There are some things that can increase the risk of a child developing cerebral palsy. These include:

premature birth (being born early) neonatal encephalopathy (caused by lack of oxygen to the brain in pregnancy or around the time of birth) stroke or bleeding in the baby’s brain during pregnancy or after birth infection during pregnancy or after birth meningitis head injuries

It’s not always possible to tell why a child has developed cerebral palsy.

A child can develop cerebral palsy despite their parents having done everything right during pregnancy and childbirth. The parents of a child with cerebral palsy are not to blame.

Diagnoses

There isn’t one single test that can diagnose cerebral palsy. Your medical professional will need to see how your child develops over time to make a diagnosis. They may also use tests such as brain scans to confirm the diagnosis.

Coping with waiting for a diagnosis Waiting for a diagnosis can be very stressful for parents. It’s natural to feel anxious when your child is unwell. NHS inform has advice on dealing with anxiety and stress, and information on where to go to find support for your mental wellbeing. Read more about mental wellbeing services

Most children are diagnosed by two years old. Some children are diagnosed earlier if they’ve spent time in medical settings, for example children who were born premature.

To diagnose cerebral palsy, your medical professional will examine your child’s medical history, and how well they can move, balance, and react. They may also use scans like an MRI to see if there’s any sign of damage or abnormal development of the brain.

Cervical cancer
of cancer, cancer types in adults

Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that develops in a woman’s cervix (the entrance to the womb from the vagina).

Cancer of the cervix often has no symptoms in its early stages. If you do have symptoms, the most common is unusual vaginal bleeding, which can occur after sex, in between periods or after the menopause.

Abnormal bleeding doesn’t mean that you definitely have cervical cancer, but it should be investigated by your GP as soon as possible. If your GP thinks you might have cervical cancer, you should be referred to see a specialist within 2 weeks.

Read more about the symptoms of cervical cancer and diagnosing cervical cancer

Symptoms

The symptoms of cervical cancer aren’t always obvious, and it may not cause any symptoms at all until it’s reached an advanced stage.

This is why it’s very important that you attend all of your cervical screening appointments.


Other symptoms of cervical cancer may include pain and discomfort during sex and an unpleasant smelling vaginal discharge.

Causes

Almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV). HPV is a very common virus that can be passed on through any type of sexual contact with a man or a woman.

There are more than 100 different types of HPV, many of which are harmless. However, some types of HPV can cause abnormal changes to the cells of the cervix, which can eventually lead to cervical cancer.

Two strains of the HPV virus (HPV 16 and HPV 18) are known to be responsible for 70% of all cases of cervical cancer. These types of HPV infection don’t have any symptoms, so many women won’t realise they have the infection.

However, it’s important to be aware that these infections are relatively common and most women who have them don’t develop cervical cancer.

Using condoms during sex offers some protection against HPV, but it can’t always prevent infection, because the virus is also spread through skin-to-skin contact of the wider genital area.

Since 2008, a HPV vaccine has been routinely offered to girls aged 12 and 13.

Read more about the causes of cervical cancer and preventing cervical cancer


In almost all cases, cervical cancer is the result of a change in cell DNA caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV).

Cancer begins with a change in the structure of the DNA that’s present in all human cells. DNA provides the cells with a basic set of instructions, including when to grow and reproduce.

A change in the DNA’s structure is known as a mutation. It can alter the instructions that control cell growth, which means the cells continue growing instead of stopping when they should. If the cells reproduce uncontrollably, they produce a lump of tissue called a tumour.

Diagnoses

If cervical cancer is suspected, you’ll be referred to a gynaecologist (a specialist in treating conditions of the female reproductive system).

Referral will be recommended if the results of your cervical screening test suggest that there are abnormalities in the cells of your cervix. However, in most cases, the abnormalities don’t mean you have cervical cancer.

You may also be referred to a gynaecologist if you have abnormal vaginal bleeding, or if your GP has noticed a growth inside your cervix during an examination.

The sexually transmitted infection (STI) chlamydia is one of the most common reasons why women experience unusual vaginal bleeding. Your GP may recommend that you’re tested for it first before being referred. Testing for chlamydia involves taking a small tissue sample from your cervix, or carrying out a urine test.


If the results of the biopsy suggest you have cervical cancer and there’s a risk that the cancer may have spread, you’ll probably need to have some further tests to assess how widespread the cancer is. These tests may include:

a pelvic examination carried out under general anaesthetic – your womb, vagina, rectum and bladder will be checked for cancer blood tests – these can be used to help assess the state of your liver, kidneys and bone marrow computerised tomography (CT) scan – scans are taken of the inside of your body and a computer is used to assemble them into a detailed three-dimensional image; the CT scan can help to identify cancerous tumours and show whether cancerous cells have spread magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan – this type of scan uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed pictures of the inside of your body; it can also be used to check whether cancer has spread chest X-ray – this will indicate whether cancer has spread to your lungs positive emission tomography (PET) scan – a specialised scan, where a mildly radioactive substance is injected into your veins so the cancerous tissue shows up more clearly; it’s often combined with a CT scan and is used to see if the cancer has spread, or to check how well a person is responding to treatment

Treatments

If cervical cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, it’s usually possible to treat it using surgery. In some cases, it’s possible to leave the womb in place, but it may need to be removed. The surgical procedure used to remove the womb is called a hysterectomy.

Radiotherapy is an alternative to surgery for some women with early-stage cervical cancer. In some cases, it’s used alongside surgery.

More advanced cases of cervical cancer are usually treated using a combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Some of the treatments used can have significant and long-lasting side effects, including early menopause and infertility.

Read more about treating cervical cancer


You should contact your GP if you experience:

bleeding after sex (postcoital bleeding) bleeding outside of your normal periods new bleeding after the menopause

Vaginal bleeding is very common and can have a wide range of causes, so it doesn’t necessarily mean you have cervical cancer. However, unusual vaginal bleeding is a symptom that needs to be investigated by your GP.


Treatment for cervical cancer depends on how far the cancer has spread.

As cancer treatments are often complex, hospitals use multidisciplinary teams (MDTs) to treat cervical cancer and tailor the treatment programme to the individual.

MDTs are made up of a number of different specialists who work together to make decisions about the best way to proceed with your treatment.

Your cancer team will recommend what they think the best treatment options are, but the final decision will be yours. In most cases, the recommendations will be:

early cervical cancer – surgery to remove some or all of the womb, radiotherapy, or a combination advanced cervical cancer – radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy, although surgery is also sometimes used

The prospect of a complete cure is good for cervical cancer diagnosed at an early stage, although the chances of a complete cure decrease the further the cancer has spread.

In cases where cervical cancer isn’t curable, it’s often possible to slow its progression, prolong lifespan and relieve any associated symptoms, such as pain and vaginal bleeding. This is known as palliative care.

Preventions

There’s no single way to completely prevent cervical cancer, but there are things that can reduce your risk.

Complications

Many women with cervical cancer will have complications. These can arise as a direct result of the cancer or as a side effect of treatments such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy and surgery.

Complications associated with cervical cancer can range from the relatively minor, such as minor bleeding from the vagina or having to urinate frequently, to life-threatening, such as severe bleeding or kidney failure.

Read more about the complications of cervical cancer


Complications of cervical cancer can occur as a side effect of treatment or as the result of advanced cervical cancer.

Chest infection
of infections and poisoning

Although most are mild and get better on their own, some can be serious or even life-threatening.



a persistent cough coughing up yellow or green phlegm (thick mucus), or coughing up blood breathlessness or rapid and shallow breathing wheezing a high temperature (fever) a rapid heartbeat chest pain or tightness feeling confused and disorientated

You may also experience more general symptoms of an infection, such as a headache, fatigue, sweating, loss of appetite, or joint and muscle pain.

Symptoms

The main symptoms of a chest infection can include:

a persistent cough coughing up yellow or green phlegm (thick mucus), or coughing up blood breathlessness or rapid and shallow breathing wheezing a high temperature (fever) a rapid heartbeat chest pain or tightness feeling confused and disorientated

You may also experience more general symptoms of an infection, such as a headache, fatigue, sweating, loss of appetite, or joint and muscle pain.


Many chest infections aren’t serious and get better within a few days or weeks. You won’t usually need to see your GP, unless your symptoms suggest you have a more serious infection.

While you recover at home, there are things you can do to improve your symptoms.

Do get plenty of restdrink lots of fluid to prevent dehydration and to loosen the mucus in your lungs, making it easier to cough uptreat headaches, fever and aches and pains with pain relief such as paracetamol or ibuprofendrink a warm drink of honey and lemon to relieve a sore throat caused by persistent coughingraise your head up with extra pillows while you’re sleeping to make breathing easierstop smoking if you smoke

Avoid cough medicines, as there’s little evidence they work. Coughing actually helps you clear the infection more quickly by getting rid of the phlegm from your lungs.

Antibiotics aren’t recommended for many chest infections, because they only work if the infection is caused by bacteria, rather than a virus.

Your GP will usually only prescribe antibiotics if they think you have pneumonia, or you’re at risk of complications such as fluid building up around the lungs (pleurisy).

If there’s a flu outbreak in your local area and you’re at risk of serious infection, your GP may also prescribe antiviral medication.

Read more about treating bronchitis and treating pneumonia

Causes

A chest infection is an infection of the lungs or airways. The main types of chest infection are bronchitis and pneumonia.

Most bronchitis cases are caused by viruses, whereas most pneumonia cases are due to bacteria.

These infections are usually spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes. This launches tiny droplets of fluid containing the virus or bacteria into the air, where they can be breathed in by others.

The infections can also be spread to others if you cough or sneeze onto your hand, an object or a surface, and someone else shakes your hand or touches those surfaces before touching their mouth or nose.

Certain groups of people have a higher risk of developing serious chest infections, such as:

babies and very young children children with developmental problems people who are very overweight elderly people pregnant women people who smoke people with long-term health conditions, such as asthma, heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease, cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) people with a weakened immune system – this could be due to a recent illness, a transplant, high-dose steroids, chemotherapy or a health condition, such as an undiagnosed HIV infection

Read more about the causes of bronchitis and the causes of pneumonia

Treatments

Contact your GP practice if: you feel very unwell or your symptoms are severe your symptoms are not improving you feel confused, disorientated or drowsy you have chest pain or difficulty breathing you cough up blood or blood-stained phlegm your skin or lips develop a blue tinge (cyanosis) you’re pregnant you’re 65 or over you’re very overweight and have difficulty breathing you think a child under five has a chest infection you have a weakened immune system you have a long-term health condition you have a cough that has lasted more than 3 weeks

Your GP should be able to diagnose you based on your symptoms and by listening to your chest using a stethoscope (a medical instrument used to listen to the heart and lungs).

In some cases, further tests – such as a chest X-ray, breathing tests and testing phlegm or blood samples – may be needed.

Preventions

There are measures you can take to help reduce your risk of developing chest infections and stop them spreading to others.

Stop smoking

If you smoke, one of the best things you can do to prevent a chest infection is to stop. Smoking damages your lungs and weakens your defences against infection.

Read more information and advice about stopping smoking

Good hygiene

Although chest infections generally aren’t as contagious as other common infections, like flu, you can pass them on to others through coughing and sneezing.

Therefore, it’s important to cover your mouth when you cough or sneeze, and to wash your hands regularly. Put tissues in the bin immediately.

Alcohol and diet

Excessive and prolonged alcohol misuse can weaken your lungs’ natural defences against infections and make you more vulnerable to chest infections.

To keep your risk of alcohol-related harm low, the NHS recommends:

not regularly drinking more than 14 units of alcohol a week if you drink as much as 14 units a week, it’s best to spread this evenly over 3 or more days if you’re trying to reduce the amount of alcohol you drink, it’s a good idea to have several alcohol-free days each week

Regular or frequent drinking means drinking alcohol most weeks. The risk to your health is increased by drinking any amount of alcohol on a regular basis.

Eating a healthy, balanced diet can help strengthen the immune system, making you less vulnerable to developing chest infections.

Read more about healthy eating and tips on cutting down on alcohol

Vaccinations

If you’re at an increased risk of chest infections, your GP may recommend being vaccinated against flu and pneumococcal infections (a bacterium that can cause pneumonia).

These vaccinations should help to reduce your chances of getting chest infections in the future.

Flu and pneumococcal vaccinations are usually recommended for:

babies and young children pregnant women (flu jab only) people aged 65 and over people with long-term health conditions or weakened immune systems

Chest pain
of heart and blood vessels, conditions

Depending on your symptoms and circumstances, you may need further investigation.

Heart attack

A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart is suddenly blocked.

Chest pain is more likely to be caused by a heart attack if it:

lasts more than 15 minutes occurs while resting

Angina

Angina is a condition where the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted.

Chest pain caused by angina is usually triggered by physical activity (exertion). It usually gets better with rest after a few minutes.

Pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs. This can cause sharp, stabbing chest pain that may get worse when you breathe in. It can also be accompanied by:

breathlessness a cough dizziness coughing up blood

Pericarditis

Pericarditis is inflammation of the sac surrounding your heart. This can cause a sudden, sharp and stabbing pain in your chest. It may also cause more of a dull ache. This pain usually gets worse when you lie down.

Lung conditions

Lung conditions that can cause chest pain include:

pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs (usually caused by an infection) pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane surrounding the lungs (usually caused by an infection)

Conditions affecting the lungs can cause sharp chest pain that:

gets worse when you breathe in and out is accompanied by other symptoms like coughing or breathlessness

If someone has severe pneumonia or pleurisy, they may also have symptoms like:

rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain




Heart attack

A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart is suddenly blocked.

Chest pain is more likely to be caused by a heart attack if it:

lasts more than 15 minutes occurs while resting

Angina

Angina is a condition where the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted.

Chest pain caused by angina is usually triggered by physical activity (exertion). It usually gets better with rest after a few minutes.

Pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs. This can cause sharp, stabbing chest pain that may get worse when you breathe in. It can also be accompanied by:

breathlessness a cough dizziness coughing up blood

Pericarditis

Pericarditis is inflammation of the sac surrounding your heart. This can cause a sudden, sharp and stabbing pain in your chest. It may also cause more of a dull ache. This pain usually gets worse when you lie down.

Lung conditions

Lung conditions that can cause chest pain include:

pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs (usually caused by an infection) pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane surrounding the lungs (usually caused by an infection)

Conditions affecting the lungs can cause sharp chest pain that:

gets worse when you breathe in and out is accompanied by other symptoms like coughing or breathlessness

If someone has severe pneumonia or pleurisy, they may also have symptoms like:

rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain




Chest pain is more likely to be caused by a heart attack if it:

lasts more than 15 minutes occurs while resting

Angina

Angina is a condition where the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted.

Chest pain caused by angina is usually triggered by physical activity (exertion). It usually gets better with rest after a few minutes.

Pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs. This can cause sharp, stabbing chest pain that may get worse when you breathe in. It can also be accompanied by:

breathlessness a cough dizziness coughing up blood

Pericarditis

Pericarditis is inflammation of the sac surrounding your heart. This can cause a sudden, sharp and stabbing pain in your chest. It may also cause more of a dull ache. This pain usually gets worse when you lie down.

Lung conditions

Lung conditions that can cause chest pain include:

pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs (usually caused by an infection) pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane surrounding the lungs (usually caused by an infection)

Conditions affecting the lungs can cause sharp chest pain that:

gets worse when you breathe in and out is accompanied by other symptoms like coughing or breathlessness

If someone has severe pneumonia or pleurisy, they may also have symptoms like:

rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain

Symptoms

Heart attack

A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart is suddenly blocked.

Chest pain is more likely to be caused by a heart attack if it:

lasts more than 15 minutes occurs while resting

Angina

Angina is a condition where the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted.

Chest pain caused by angina is usually triggered by physical activity (exertion). It usually gets better with rest after a few minutes.

Pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs. This can cause sharp, stabbing chest pain that may get worse when you breathe in. It can also be accompanied by:

breathlessness a cough dizziness coughing up blood

Pericarditis

Pericarditis is inflammation of the sac surrounding your heart. This can cause a sudden, sharp and stabbing pain in your chest. It may also cause more of a dull ache. This pain usually gets worse when you lie down.

Lung conditions

Lung conditions that can cause chest pain include:

pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs (usually caused by an infection) pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane surrounding the lungs (usually caused by an infection)

Conditions affecting the lungs can cause sharp chest pain that:

gets worse when you breathe in and out is accompanied by other symptoms like coughing or breathlessness

If someone has severe pneumonia or pleurisy, they may also have symptoms like:

rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain




rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain

Causes

There are a number of different conditions that can cause chest pain. You should always seek medical advice to make sure you get a proper diagnosis.

Depending on your symptoms and circumstances, you may need further investigation.

Heart attack

A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart is suddenly blocked.

Chest pain is more likely to be caused by a heart attack if it:

lasts more than 15 minutes occurs while resting

Angina

Angina is a condition where the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted.

Chest pain caused by angina is usually triggered by physical activity (exertion). It usually gets better with rest after a few minutes.

Pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs. This can cause sharp, stabbing chest pain that may get worse when you breathe in. It can also be accompanied by:

breathlessness a cough dizziness coughing up blood

Pericarditis

Pericarditis is inflammation of the sac surrounding your heart. This can cause a sudden, sharp and stabbing pain in your chest. It may also cause more of a dull ache. This pain usually gets worse when you lie down.

Lung conditions

Lung conditions that can cause chest pain include:

pneumonia – inflammation of the lungs (usually caused by an infection) pleurisy – inflammation of the membrane surrounding the lungs (usually caused by an infection)

Conditions affecting the lungs can cause sharp chest pain that:

gets worse when you breathe in and out is accompanied by other symptoms like coughing or breathlessness

If someone has severe pneumonia or pleurisy, they may also have symptoms like:

rapid breathing confusion

Seek medical advice immediately if you or someone else has symptoms of: a heart attack angina a pulmonary embolism pericarditis pneumonia pleurisy

Other causes of chest pain

There are many other potential causes of chest pain, including:

gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – acid from the stomach comes up into the oesophagus (gullet) causing burning chest pain (heartburn) and an unpleasant taste in the mouth  acute cholecystitis – inflammation of the gallbladder that can cause a sudden sharp pain in the upper right side of your tummy that spreads towards your right shoulder strained muscle – can cause chest pain that’s painful and tender to touch costochondritis – inflammation in the cartilage that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum) that can cause pain, swelling and tenderness around the ribs panic attack or anxiety – can sometimes be accompanied by chest pain

Chickenpox
of infections and poisoning

Chickenpox is most common in children under the age of 10. Children usually catch chickenpox in winter and spring, particularly between March and May.

Symptoms

Chickenpox causes a rash of red, itchy spots that turn into fluid-filled blisters. They then crust over to form scabs, which eventually drop off.

Chickenpox spots

The spots normally appear in clusters and tend to be:

behind the ears on the face over the scalp on the chest and belly on the arms and legs

But, the spots can be anywhere on the body, including:

inside the ears and mouth on the palms of the hands soles of the feet inside the nappy area.

The rash starts as small, itchy red spots. These develop a blister on top and become very itchy after about 12 to 14 hours.

After a day or two, the fluid in the blisters gets cloudy and they begin to dry out and crust over.

After 1 to 2 weeks, the crusting skin will fall off naturally.

New spots can keep appearing in waves for 3 to 5 days after the rash begins. So, different groups of spots may be at different stages of blistering or drying out.

Before chickenpox spots appear

Before the rash appears, you or your child may have some mild flu-like symptoms, including:

feeling sick a high temperature (fever) of 38C (100.4F) or over aching, painful muscles headache generally feeling unwell loss of appetite

These symptoms, especially the fever, tend to be more common and worse in adults than in children.

Contacting your doctor about chickenpox

For most children, chickenpox is a mild illness that gets better on its own.

Chickenpox tends to be more severe in adults than children. Adults have a higher risk of developing complications.

Contact your GP practice if: You or your child develop any abnormal symptoms, such as: the skin around the blisters becomes hot, red and painful, (redness may be harder to see on brown or black skin) pain in the chest or difficulty breathing signs of dehydration, such as fewer wet nappies, drowsiness and cold hands and feet blisters on their skin become infected any of your or your child’s symptoms suddenly get worse or You have been in contact with someone who has chickenpox, or you have chickenpox symptoms and: you are pregnant or have given birth in the last 7 days you have a weakened immune system (the body’s defence system) your baby is less than 4 weeks old you are breastfeeding If your GP is closed, phone 111.

Contact your GP practice if: you’re not sure if you or your child has chickenpox you’re worried about your child Tell the receptionist you think it might be chickenpox before going in to a GP practice.

Causes

Chickenpox (known medically as varicella) is caused by a virus called the varicella-zoster virus. It’s spread quickly and easily from someone who is infected.

Chickenpox is most common in children under the age of 10. Children usually catch chickenpox in winter and spring, particularly between March and May.

Treatments

There is no treatment for chickenpox. But, you can get remedies from your pharmacy that can help symptoms. These include:

paracetamol to help bring down a fever calamine lotion and cooling gels to ease itching.

In most children, the blisters crust up and fall off naturally within 1 to 2 weeks.

Adults with chickenpox may be helped by taking antiviral medicine if its diagnosed early enough.

Chilblains
of skin hair and nails

They most often affect the body’s extremities, such as the toes, fingers, heels, ears and nose.

Chilblains can be uncomfortable, but rarely cause any permanent damage. They normally heal within a few weeks if further exposure to the cold is avoided.

Chilblains can turn the skin red and may cause a burning or stinging sensation.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/

In severe cases, chilblains can cause the skin to blister.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/


Chilblains can be uncomfortable, but rarely cause any permanent damage. They normally heal within a few weeks if further exposure to the cold is avoided.

Chilblains can turn the skin red and may cause a burning or stinging sensation.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/

In severe cases, chilblains can cause the skin to blister.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/


Chilblains can turn the skin red and may cause a burning or stinging sensation.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/

In severe cases, chilblains can cause the skin to blister.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/

Symptoms

Chilblains usually develop several hours after exposure to the cold. They typically cause a burning and itching sensation in the affected areas, which can become more intense if you go into a warm room.

The affected skin may also swell and turn red or dark blue.

In severe cases, the surface of the skin may break and sores or blisters can develop. 

It’s important not to scratch the skin as it can break easily and become infected.

Causes

Chilblains are the result of an abnormal reaction to the cold. They’re common in the UK because damp, cold weather is usual in the winter.

Some people develop chilblains that last for several months every winter.

When the skin is cold, blood vessels near its surface get narrower. If the skin is then exposed to heat, the blood vessels become wider.

If this happens too quickly, blood vessels near the surface of the skin can’t always handle the increased blood flow.

This can cause blood to leak into the surrounding tissue, which may cause the swelling and itchiness associated with chilblains.

Treatments

Most people don’t need to seek medical advice if they have chilblains as they usually heal within a few weeks and don’t cause any permanent problems.

Speak to your GP or chiropodist if you have: severe or recurring chilblains chilblains that don’t improve within a few weeks

You should also seek medical advice if you think your skin may have become infected.

Signs of infection include:

swelling and pus forming in the affected area feeling generally unwell a high temperature (fever) of 38C (100.4F) or above swollen glands


Chilblains often get better on their own after a week or two without treatment.

It may help to use a soothing lotion, such as calamine or witch hazel, to relieve itching. Your pharmacist may also be able to recommend a suitable product.

If your chilblains are severe and keep returning, speak to your GP. They may recommend taking a daily tablet or capsule of a medication called nifedipine. This works by relaxing the blood vessels, improving your circulation. 

Nifedipine can be used to help existing chilblains heal, or can be taken during the winter to stop them developing.

Preventions

If you’re susceptible to chilblains, you can reduce your risk of developing them by:

limiting your exposure to the cold looking after your feet taking steps to improve your circulation

If your skin gets cold, it’s important to warm it up gradually. Heating the skin too quickly – for example, by placing your feet in hot water or near a heater – is one of the main causes of chilblains.

Do stop smoking – nicotine causes the blood vessels to constrict, which can make chilblains worsekeep active – this helps improve your circulationwear warm clothes and insulate your hands, feet and legs – wearing long johns, long boots, tights, leg warmers or long socks will help, and it’s a good idea to wear a clean pair of socks if you get cold feet in bedavoid tight shoes and boots – these can restrict the circulation to your toes and feetmoisturise your feet regularly – this stops them drying out and the skin crackingeat at least one hot meal during the day – this’ll help warm your whole body, particularly in cold weatherwarm your shoes on the radiator before you put them on – make sure damp shoes are dry before you wear them; if your feet are already cold, make sure your shoes aren’t too hot to avoid causing chilblainswarm your hands before going outdoors – soak them in warm water for several minutes and dry thoroughly, and wear cotton-lined waterproof gloves if necessary; if your hands are already cold, make sure not to warm them up too quickly to avoid causing chilblainskeep your house well heated – try to keep one room in the house warm and avoid draftsif you’re diabetic, regularly check your feet (or ask someone else to do this) – people with diabetes may not be able to feel their feet and could have infected chilblains without realising it

Complications

If you have severe or recurring chilblains, there’s a small risk of further problems developing, such as:

infection from blistered or scratched skin ulcers forming on the skin permanent discolouration of the skin scarring of the skin


It’s often possible to avoid complications of chilblains.

Don’t do not scratch or rub the affected areas of skindo not directly overheat the chilblains (by using hot water, for example)

You can also help reduce your risk of infection by cleaning any breaks in your skin with antiseptic and covering the area with an antiseptic dressing. The dressing should be changed every other day until the skin heals. 

If the skin does become infected, antibiotics may be prescribed to treat the infection.