Hay fever
of immune system

You’ll experience hay fever symptoms if you have an allergic reaction to pollen.

Pollen is a fine powder released by plants as part of their reproductive cycle. It contains proteins that can cause the nose, eyes, throat and sinuses to become swollen, irritated and inflamed.

You can have an allergy to:

tree pollen, released during spring grass pollen, released during the end of spring and beginning of summer weed pollen, released late autumn

Many people find their symptoms improve as they get older.


Pollen is a fine powder released by plants as part of their reproductive cycle. It contains proteins that can cause the nose, eyes, throat and sinuses to become swollen, irritated and inflamed.

You can have an allergy to:

tree pollen, released during spring grass pollen, released during the end of spring and beginning of summer weed pollen, released late autumn

Many people find their symptoms improve as they get older.


You can have an allergy to:

tree pollen, released during spring grass pollen, released during the end of spring and beginning of summer weed pollen, released late autumn

Many people find their symptoms improve as they get older.

Symptoms

The symptoms of hay fever include:

frequent sneezing runny or blocked nose itchy, red or watery eyes (allergic conjunctivitis)  an itchy throat, mouth, nose and ears cough, caused by postnasal drip (mucus dripping down the throat from the back of the nose)

Less commonly, you may also experience:

the loss of your sense of smell (anosmia) facial pain (caused by blocked sinuses) headaches earache tiredness and fatigue

If you have asthma, your asthma symptoms may get worse when you have hay fever.

Treatments

There’s currently no cure for hay fever. But most people can relieve symptoms with treatment, at least to a certain extent.

The most effective way to control hay fever would be to avoid exposure to pollen. However, it’s very difficult to avoid pollen, particularly during the summer months.

Treatment options for hay fever include:

antihistamines – which help to prevent an allergic reaction corticosteroids (steroids) – which help to reduce inflammation and swelling


If you have hay fever, you can get advice and treatment from a pharmacist.

Find your nearest pharmacy

Hay fever can often be controlled using over-the-counter medication from your pharmacist.

Speak to your GP if: your symptoms are getting worse your symptoms do not improve after taking medicines from the pharmacy  you’re experiencing persistent complications of hay fever, such as worsening asthma or repeated episodes of sinusitis

For severe and persistent hay fever, there’s also a type of treatment called immunotherapy. It involves being exposed to small amounts of pollen over time. This builds resistance to pollen’s allergic effects. But it can take many months or even years to work.

Complications

Hay fever doesn’t pose a serious threat to health. But it can have a negative impact on your quality of life. Very severe hay fever may disrupt your productivity at school or work.

Inflammation of the sinuses (sinusitis) is another common complication of hay fever. Children may also develop a middle ear infection (otitis media) as a result of hay fever.

Head and neck cancer
of cancer, cancer types in adults

There are more than 30 areas within the head and neck where cancer can develop, including the:

mouth (including the lips) voice box (larynx) throat (pharynx)  salivary glands nose and sinuses area at the back of the nose and mouth (nasopharynx)

Oesophageal (gullet) cancer, thyroid cancer, brain tumours and eye cancer don’t tend to be classified as a head and neck cancer.


mouth (including the lips) voice box (larynx) throat (pharynx)  salivary glands nose and sinuses area at the back of the nose and mouth (nasopharynx)

Oesophageal (gullet) cancer, thyroid cancer, brain tumours and eye cancer don’t tend to be classified as a head and neck cancer.

Symptoms

a change in the voice, such as persistent hoarseness difficulty or pain when swallowing noisy breathing shortness of breath a persistent cough a lump or swelling in your neck

Read more about laryngeal cancer.


To read more about salivary gland cancer, visit Cancer Research UK and Macmillan Cancer Support.


a lump in the neck, due to the cancer spreading to the lymph nodes (pea-sized lumps of tissue that make up part of the immune system) in the neck a blocked or stuffy nose nosebleeds hearing loss (usually only in one ear)

Read more about nasopharyngeal cancer.

Head lice and nits
of skin hair and nails

Head lice are a common problem, particularly in school children aged 4 to 11.

They’re largely harmless, but can live in the hair for a long time if not treated and can be irritating and frustrating to deal with.

Head lice nits and bites.https://dermnetnz.org/


They’re largely harmless, but can live in the hair for a long time if not treated and can be irritating and frustrating to deal with.

Head lice nits and bites.https://dermnetnz.org/


Head lice nits and bites.https://dermnetnz.org/

Treatments

Your pharmacist can advise you about treatments for head lice and nits if you’re not sure which is best for you or your child.

Make sure you carefully follow the instructions that come with the treatment you choose.

Find your nearest pharmacyYou can get advice and treatment on head lice and nits directly from a pharmacy.Pharmacies

Preventions

It’s very difficult to prevent head lice.

You may want to consider regular detection combing if you’re concerned about your children or yourself. For example, on a weekly basis.

Lotions and sprays don’t prevent head lice and should only be used if a live louse has been found in your or your child’s hair.

Staying off work or school and washing clothing and bedding on a hot wash is unnecessary, as it’s unlikely to help prevent the spread of head lice.

Headaches
of brain nerves and spinal cord

advice about headaches treatments to help relieve headaches

Find your local pharmacy

Speak to a GP if: treatments recommended by your pharmacist do not relieve your headache your headache is getting worse despite taking painkillers painful or frequent headaches affect your daily activities or cause you to miss work

Phone 111 if: your headache does not go away and gets worse over time your headache is triggered suddenly by coughing, laughing, sneezing, changing posture, or physical effort You have a headache and: a sore scalp jaw pain while chewing you feel weak

Phone 999 if: your headache occurs suddenly and is very severe – it may feel like a blinding pain your headache occurs after a severe head injury You have an extremely painful headache and: slurred speech or memory loss a very high temperature, feel hot and shivery, and have a stiff neck or a rash drowsiness or confusion vision problems severe pain and redness in one of your eyes

Symptoms

nausea vomiting increased sensitivity to light or sound

Migraines can stop you carrying out your normal daily activities. They usually last at least a couple of hours. Some people find they need to stay in bed for days at a time.

How to treat migraines

Most people can treat their migraines with over-the-counter medication from the pharmacist.

If your migraines are severe, you may need to be prescribed stronger medication by your GP. This may be able to relieve and prevent your migraines.

Read further information about migraines

Causes

Headaches can also have a number of other causes, including:

drinking too much alcohol a head injury or concussion a cold or flu temporomandibular disorders – problems affecting the ‘chewing’ muscles and the joints between the lower jaw and the base of the skull sinusitis – inflammation of the lining of the sinuses carbon monoxide poisoning sleep apnoea – a condition where the walls of the throat relax and narrow during sleep, interrupting normal breathing

Treatments

Your local pharmacy can provide:

advice about headaches treatments to help relieve headaches

Find your local pharmacy

Speak to a GP if: treatments recommended by your pharmacist do not relieve your headache your headache is getting worse despite taking painkillers painful or frequent headaches affect your daily activities or cause you to miss work

Phone 111 if: your headache does not go away and gets worse over time your headache is triggered suddenly by coughing, laughing, sneezing, changing posture, or physical effort You have a headache and: a sore scalp jaw pain while chewing you feel weak

Phone 999 if: your headache occurs suddenly and is very severe – it may feel like a blinding pain your headache occurs after a severe head injury You have an extremely painful headache and: slurred speech or memory loss a very high temperature, feel hot and shivery, and have a stiff neck or a rash drowsiness or confusion vision problems severe pain and redness in one of your eyes

Hearing loss
of ears nose and throat

Hearing loss is a common problem that often develops with age or is caused by repeated exposure to loud noises.

Action on Hearing Loss estimates that there are more than 10 million (about 1 in 6) people in the UK with some degree of hearing impairment or deafness.

Hearing loss can occur suddenly, but usually develops gradually. General signs of hearing loss can include:

difficulty hearing other people clearly and misunderstanding what they say asking people to repeat themselves listening to music or watching television with the volume turned up higher than other people require

Read more about the symptoms of hearing loss

Causes

Hearing loss is the result of sound signals not reaching the brain. There are two main types of hearing loss, depending on where the problem lies:

sensorineural hearing loss – caused by damage to the sensitive hair cells inside the inner ear or damage to the auditory nerve; this occurs naturally with age or as a result of injury conductive hearing loss – when sounds are unable to pass from your outer ear to your inner ear, often because of a blockage such as earwax, glue ear or a build-up of fluid from an ear infection, or because of a perforated ear drum or disorder of the hearing bones

It’s also possible to have both these types of hearing loss. This is known as mixed hearing loss.

Some people are born with hearing loss, but most cases develop as you get older. 

Read more about causes of hearing loss


Hearing loss is the result of sound signals not reaching the brain. There are two main types of hearing loss, depending on where the problem lies.

Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage to the sensitive hair cells inside the inner ear or damage to the auditory nerve. This occurs naturally with age or as a result of injury. Conductive hearing loss happens when sounds are unable to pass from your outer ear to your inner ear, often because of a blockage such as earwax or glue ear.

These causes are explained below.


Conductive hearing loss is usually caused by a blockage, such as having too much ear wax, a build-up of fluid in the ear (glue ear), or an ear infection.

Conductive hearing loss can also be caused by:

a perforated eardrum – where the eardrum is torn or has a hole in it otosclerosis – an abnormal growth of bone in the middle ear that causes the inner hearing bone (the stapes) to be less mobile and less effective at transmitting sound damage to the hearing bones from injury, a collapsed ear drum or conditions such as cholesteatoma swelling around the eustachian tube – caused by jaw surgery or radiotherapy for nasal and sinus cancer malformation of the ear Eustachian tube dysfunction something becoming trapped in the ear (a foreign body)

Conductive hearing loss is usually temporary and can often be treated with medication or minor surgery.

Read more about treating hearing loss

Diagnoses

See your GP if you’re having problems with your hearing. They’ll examine your ears and carry out some simple hearing tests.

You may also want to visit the Action on Hearing Loss website for an online hearing test.

Treatments

See your GP if you’re having problems with your hearing, or your child is showing signs of hearing difficulty. If you lose your hearing suddenly, in one or both ears, you must see your GP as soon as possible.

Your GP can check for any problems and may refer you to an audiologist (hearing specialist) or an ENT surgeon for further tests.

You can also visit the Action on Hearing Loss website for an online hearing test.

Read more about diagnosing hearing loss


The way hearing loss is treated depends on the cause and how severe it is.

In cases of sensorineural hearing loss, there are several options that may help to improve a person’s ability to hear and communicate. These include:

digital hearing aids – which are available through the NHS bone anchored implants – suitable for people who are unable to use hearing aids and for some levels of sensorineural hearing loss middle ear implants – suitable for some people who are unable to use hearing aids cochlear implants – for people who find hearing aids aren’t powerful enough lip reading and/or sign language – such as British Sign Language (BSL)

Conductive hearing loss is sometimes temporary and can be treated with medication or minor surgery, if necessary. However, more major surgery may be required to fix the ear drum or hearing bones. If conventional hearing aids don’t work, there are also some implantable devices for this type of hearing loss, such as a Bone Anchored Hearing Aids (BAHAs).

Read more about treating hearing loss


How hearing loss is treated depends on the underlying cause of the condition.

Hearing loss that occurs when sounds are unable to pass into the inner ear (conductive hearing loss) is often temporary and treatable.

For example, earwax build-up can be removed by drops, a syringe or suction. Hearing loss caused by a bacterial infection can be treated with antibiotics. Surgery can be used to drain a fluid build-up, repair a perforated eardrum, or correct problems with the hearing bones.

However, hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or to the nerves that transmit sound to brain (sensorineural hearing loss) is permanent.

If your hearing is impaired, treatment can improve your hearing and quality of life. Some of these treatments are discussed below.

Preventions

It isn’t always possible to prevent hearing loss if you have an underlying condition that causes you to lose your hearing.

However, there are several things you can do to reduce the risk of hearing loss from long-term exposure to loud noise. This includes not having music or the television on at a loud volume at home and using ear protection at loud music events or in noisy work environments.

You should also see your GP if you have signs of an ear infection, such as flu-like symptoms, severe earache, discharge or hearing loss.

Read more about preventing hearing loss


The ears are fragile structures that can be damaged in many ways, so it’s not always possible to prevent hearing loss.

The risk of your hearing being damaged by loud noises depends on how loud the noises are and how long you’re exposed to them. Experts agree that continued exposure to noise at or above 85dB (similar to a lawn mower or loud traffic) can, over time, cause hearing loss.

However, by following the advice below it’s possible to reduce your risk of noise-induced hearing loss (hearing loss from loud noise):

Don’t have your television, radio or music on too loud. This is particularly important if you have young children in the house, because their ears are more delicate than an adult’s. If you can’t have a comfortable conversation with someone who is two metres (about 6.5ft) away from you, turn the volume down. You shouldn’t have dull hearing or ringing in your ears after listening to music. Use headphones that block out more outside noise, rather than turning up the volume. You can buy add-ons for your existing headphones that block out more outside noise, or noise cancelling headphones. Use ear protection equipment such as ear muffs or ear plugs if you work in a noisy environment, such as a pub, nightclub, a garage workshop or on a building site. It’s important to insert ear plugs correctly to gain the benefit of wearing them. Use ear-protection equipment at loud concerts and at other events where there are high noise levels, such as motor races. Don’t insert objects into your ears or your children’s ears. This includes fingers, cotton buds, cotton wool and tissue. Be aware of the symptoms of common causes of hearing loss, such as ear infections (otitis media) and Ménière’s disease Visit your GP if you or your child are experiencing hearing problems.

Read more tips to protect your hearing

Heart failure
of heart and blood vessels, conditions

Speak to a GP if you have: breathlessness a persistent cough tiredness or fatigue that occurs even at rest and gets worse with movement swelling in the legs or ankles


a heart attack coronary heart disease inherited heart disease (for example, cardiomyopathy) high blood pressure (hypertension) heart rhythm or valve abnormalities viral infection damage from the immune system (myocarditis) congenital heart disease amyloidosis

Symptoms

When the heart is not pumping blood as well as it should, you can experience a range of symptoms.

Speak to a GP if you have: breathlessness a persistent cough tiredness or fatigue that occurs even at rest and gets worse with movement swelling in the legs or ankles

Causes

There are many reasons why someone might develop heart failure. These can include:

a heart attack coronary heart disease inherited heart disease (for example, cardiomyopathy) high blood pressure (hypertension) heart rhythm or valve abnormalities viral infection damage from the immune system (myocarditis) congenital heart disease amyloidosis

Diagnoses

Your doctor will ask you some questions about your symptoms and do an examination. If they think that you might have heart failure, you’ll be sent for some further tests.

Tests to confirm a diagnosis of heart failure may include:

blood tests to check for signs of a problem with your heart – this may include testing your BNP levels, which increase when the heart is not working well a chest X-ray – to check if there’s fluid in your lungs or if a lung condition is causing the symptoms an electrocardiogram (ECG) – records the electrical activity and rhythms of your heart an echocardiogram – checks the pumping action of your heart and the function of the valves in your heart

Treatments

If you have heart failure, treatments are available to help you manage your symptoms. This can help to improve your quality of life.

Your doctor will discuss treatment options with you. The best option for you will depend on your individual circumstances.

The standard medicines for treating heart failure are:

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors angiotensin-receptor neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI) angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) beta blockers diuretics (water tablets) mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs)

For some people with severe heart failure, a heart transplant may be recommended. Your doctor will discuss whether this is an appropriate option for you.

Hepatitis A
of stomach liver and gastrointestinal tract

Hepatitis A is not usually serious. Most people get better within a couple of months.

A hepatitis A vaccine is available on the NHS if you’re at increased risk.


A hepatitis A vaccine is available on the NHS if you’re at increased risk.

Symptoms

Some people with hepatitis A, particularly young children, won’t have any symptoms.

If you do develop symptoms, they tend to occur around 4 weeks after exposure to the hepatitis A virus.

Symptoms of hepatitis A include:

feeling tired and generally unwell joint and muscle pain a high temperature (fever) loss of appetite feeling or being sick pain in the upper-right part of your tummy a headache, sore throat and cough constipation or diarrhoea a raised, itchy rash (hives) yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice) dark pee pale poo itchy skin the upper-right part of your tummy becoming swollen and tender

Diagnoses

A blood test can check whether you have hepatitis A. It can also rule out other conditions that cause similar symptoms, but which may require treatment to prevent more serious problems.

Your friends, family and sexual partners may need to be tested too.

Treatments

Speak to your GP practice if: you think you may have been exposed to the hepatitis A virus – emergency treatment can help prevent infection if given within a few days of exposure you have symptoms of hepatitis A you’re at increased risk of hepatitis A


There’s currently no cure for hepatitis A. It will usually get better its own within a couple of months.

Once hepatitis A passes, you’ll normally be immune to it for life.

Things you can do yourself

There are things you can do to help your symptoms and prevent the infection spreading to others.

Do get plenty of rest take painkillers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen for any aches and pains – ask your GP for advice as you may need to take lower doses than normal or avoid certain medications until you’ve recovered have a cool, airy environment wear loose clothing eat smaller, lighter meals to help reduce feeling sick and vomiting wash your hands with soap and water regularly wash soiled laundry separately on a hot cycle clean the toilet, flush handles and taps more often than usual

Don’t do not drink alcohol do not have very hot baths or showers do not prepare food for other people, if you can avoid it do not share towels do not go to work or school until at least a week after your jaundice or other symptoms started do not have sex until at least a week after your jaundice or other symptoms started

Treatments from your doctor

Speak to your GP practice if your symptoms get worse or haven’t started to improve within a couple of months. They can prescribe medications to help with itchiness, nausea or vomiting, if needed.

Long-term hepatitis A

Hepatitis A can occasionally last for many months.

In rare cases, it can be life-threatening if it causes liver failure. People most at risk include those with other liver problems and elderly people. If liver failure does occur, a liver transplant is usually needed to treat it.

Hepatitis B
of stomach liver and gastrointestinal tract

It often doesn’t cause any symptoms in adults and usually passes in a few months without treatment. In children it often persists for years and may eventually cause serious liver damage.

A hepatitis B vaccine is available on the NHS as part of routine child vaccination, or if you’re at high risk.


A hepatitis B vaccine is available on the NHS as part of routine child vaccination, or if you’re at high risk.

Symptoms

Many people with hepatitis B won’t have any symptoms.

If you do develop symptoms, they tend to occur 2 or 3 months after exposure to the hepatitis B virus.

Symptoms of hepatitis B include:

tiredness a high temperature (fever) of 38°C (100.4°F) or above general aches and pains loss of appetite feeling and being sick diarrhoea abdominal pain yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)

Diagnoses

A blood test can check if you have hepatitis B or have had it in the past. The hepatitis B vaccine may also be recommended to reduce your risk of infection.

Treatments

Speak to your GP practice if: you think you may have been exposed to the hepatitis B virus – emergency treatment can help prevent infection if given within a few days of exposure you have symptoms of hepatitis B you’re at high risk of hepatitis B


Treatment for hepatitis B depends on how long you’ve been infected for.

Emergency treatment

If you’ve been exposed to the virus in the last few days, emergency treatment can help stop you becoming infected.

Treatment for acute hepatitis B

Acute hepatitis B means you’ve only had the infection for a few weeks or months. You may only need treatment to relieve your symptoms while your body fights off the infection itself.

Treatment for chronic hepatitis B

Chronic hepatitis B means you’ve had the infection for more than 6 months. You may be offered medicines that can keep the virus under control and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Chronic hepatitis B often requires:

long-term or lifelong treatment regular checks for any further liver problems

Preventions

A vaccine that offers protection against hepatitis B is available for all babies born in the UK on or after 1 August 2017. It’s also available for people at high risk of the infection or complications from it.

People at high risk of hepatitis B

People at high risk of hepatitis B include:

babies born to mothers with hepatitis B close family and sexual partners of someone with hepatitis B people travelling to a part of the world where hepatitis B is widespread families adopting or fostering children from high-risk countries people who inject drugs or have a sexual partner who injects drugs people who change their sexual partner often men who have sex with men male and female sex workers people whose job puts them at risk of contact with blood or body fluids, such as nurses, prison staff, doctors, dentists and laboratory staff people with chronic liver disease people with chronic kidney disease people in prison people receiving regular blood or blood products, and their carers

Hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc) testing and lookback programme

NHS Scotland is making the blood supply safer by introducing enhanced hepatitis B screening. This is an additional measure to improve testing for blood donors and further increase the safety of the blood supply chain.

NHS Scotland has been conducting this enhanced screening on all donations since April 2022. Only a small number of donors are impacted, however, these donors will no longer be able to donate.

Lookback programme

NHS Scotland is also undertaking a lookback programme. Anyone who has received blood from a donor found to be positive for anti-HBc by this new test (anti-HBc) will be contacted by letter. If you’re affected, you’ll be offered testing, support and advice.

Lookback programmes are happening across the UK.

Further information about the programme is available

Complications

Most people do not have any lasting problems after having a hepatitis B infection.

In some patients chronic hepatitis B can cause liver damage (cirrhosis) and increase your risk of getting liver cancer.

It is important that all patients with chronic hepatitis B are followed up in specialist clinics. If required, treatment can control hepatitis B infection, preventing serious complications.

Hepatitis C
of stomach liver and gastrointestinal tract

It can be cured with treatment. But if left untreated, it can sometimes cause serious and potentially life-threatening damage to the liver over many years.



Early symptoms (acute hepatitis C)

Most people will not have symptoms during the first 6 months of a hepatitis C infection. This stage is known as acute hepatitis C.

If symptoms do develop, they usually occur a few weeks after infection.

Early symptoms may include:

a high temperature (fever) of 38°C (100.4°F) or above tiredness loss of appetite abdominal pain feeling and being sick yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)

Later symptoms (chronic hepatitis C)

Symptoms can vary from person to person. They can also go away for long periods of time and then return.

Later symptoms may include:

feeling tired all the time joint and muscle aches and pain feeling sick brain fog – including problems with memory, concentration and mental tasks such as arithmetic mood swings depression or anxiety indigestion or bloating itchy skin abdominal pain

Symptoms

Many people with hepatitis C won’t have any symptoms until the liver has been significantly damaged. This means many people have the infection without knowing.

Early symptoms (acute hepatitis C)

Most people will not have symptoms during the first 6 months of a hepatitis C infection. This stage is known as acute hepatitis C.

If symptoms do develop, they usually occur a few weeks after infection.

Early symptoms may include:

a high temperature (fever) of 38°C (100.4°F) or above tiredness loss of appetite abdominal pain feeling and being sick yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)

Later symptoms (chronic hepatitis C)

Symptoms can vary from person to person. They can also go away for long periods of time and then return.

Later symptoms may include:

feeling tired all the time joint and muscle aches and pain feeling sick brain fog – including problems with memory, concentration and mental tasks such as arithmetic mood swings depression or anxiety indigestion or bloating itchy skin abdominal pain

Treatments

Speak to your GP practice if: you have symptoms of hepatitis C there’s a risk you’re infected with hepatitis C, even if you don’t have symptoms

The only way to know for certain if these symptoms are caused by hepatitis C is to get tested.

Getting tested for hepatitis C

You can get tested for hepatitis C at:

your GP practice a sexual health clinic a drug treatment service most substance use recovery services


Treatment takes 8 to 12 weeks, and usually cures the infection. But you won’t be immune to hepatitis C. So you should take steps to reduce your risk of becoming infected again.

If the infection is diagnosed early (acute hepatitis), you may not need treatment straight away. Instead, you may have another blood test after a few months to see if your body fights off the virus itself.

If the infection continues for several months (chronic hepatitis), treatment will usually be recommended.

Things you can do yourself

There are things you can do to stop liver damage and prevent the infection spreading to others before you start treatment.

Do eat a healthy and balanced diet exercise regularly speak to your doctor if you’re thinking of having a baby

Don’t do not drink alcohol do not smoke do not share toothbrushes, razors, needles or other injecting equipment with other people

Preventions

There’s no vaccine for hepatitis C.

There are things you can do to reduce your risk of becoming infected.

Do use condoms when having anal sex, or sex with a new partner get vaccinated against hepatitis A and hepatitis B if you inject drugs, use a fresh safe injecting kit (available from needle exchanges) every time you inject

Don’t do not share any drug-injecting equipment – including needles, syringes, spoons and filters do not share razors or toothbrushes

The risk of getting hepatitis C through vaginal sex is very low. It may be higher if blood is present, such as period (menstrual) blood or from bleeding during anal sex.

Complications

If left untreated for many years, hepatitis C can cause liver damage (cirrhosis). In severe cases, life-threatening problems such as liver failure or liver cancer can eventually develop.

Early treatment of hepatitis C prevents these serious complications, while later treatment reduces the risk.

Hiatus hernia
of stomach liver and gastrointestinal tract

A hiatus hernia, or hiatal hernia, is when part of the stomach squeezes up into the chest through an opening (‘hiatus’) in the diaphragm.

The diaphragm is a large, thin sheet of muscle between the chest and the abdomen (tummy).

Causes

It’s not exactly clear what causes hiatus hernia, but it may be the result of the diaphragm becoming weak with age, or pressure on the abdomen.

Hiatus hernia can sometimes occur in newborn babies if the stomach or diaphragm doesn’t develop properly.

Diagnoses

A hiatus hernia can usually be diagnosed after a gastroscopy or X-ray.

Treatments

Treatment for a sliding hiatus hernia usually focuses on relieving the symptoms of GORD, such as heartburn.

Lifestyle changes and medication are the preferred treatments. Surgery is usually only recommended as an alternative to long-term medication or if other treatments haven’t worked.

Lifestyle advice may include:

eating smaller, more frequent meals, rather than 3 large meals a day avoiding lying down (including going to bed) for 3 hours after eating or drinking removing any foods or drinks from your diet that make your symptoms worse  

If a hiatus hernia isn’t causing any noticeable problems, it doesn’t usually need to be treated.

Surgery is used to repair a para-oesophageal hiatus hernia if there’s a risk of serious complications.

Read more about treating a hiatus hernia.


Treatment for a hiatus hernia is usually only necessary if it’s causing problems.

In most cases, people with a hiatus hernia only experience problems if the hernia causes gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). GORD can cause symptoms such as heartburn and an unpleasant taste in your mouth.

Lifestyle changes and medication are the preferred treatments, although surgery may be used as an alternative to long-term medication, or if other treatments are ineffective.

Complications

Complications from a hiatus hernia are rare, but they can be serious.

Hiatus hernias that slide in and out of the chest area (sliding hiatus hernias) can cause gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). This is where stomach acid leaks into the oesophagus (gullet). This can damage the oesophagus, increasing the risk of problems.